Writing a Research paper

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Some important definitions

Many students are confused by the differences between an essay and what's often called a research paper or report. Some teachers, students and parents use these terms interchangeably, but in this guide the terms represent different ideas.

Essays:

Because essays rely mostly on your own interpretation of events, facts and information, they rarely require research work beyond what is covered in class and, sometimes, an accompanying reference list. Due to time constraints, essays written during tests will usually follow only a few of the guidelines presented here (clear organization, language, tone, etc). Essay assignments written outside of class will follow a few more of the guidelines, such as presentation, page format, and others. However, you should follow guidelines presented here regarding writing and polishing your work whenever you write an essay. (See Part II: Writing your Essay or Paper beginning on page 4)

Research papers:

Research papers usually are carried out over a longer period of time than are essays and revolve around information you gather from a variety of sources. Usually, neither in-class or out-of-class essays will rely as heavily on research done outside of class. Consequently, the research guidelines covered in this manual apply, for the most part, only to what we call a research paper. Sometimes specific guidelines and formats will be provided for your research work; sometimes the assignment will be more open-ended. Either way, you'll want to follow all the guidelines below, from location of sources to use of language, from presentation concerns to citation and reference formats.

Before you begin any writing assignment, make sure you spend some time to be sure you understand what your task is in the particular assignment. If you have any questions or doubts about what's expected, ask. After you've written your paper, check again to make sure that you've accomplished that task.

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Part I: Researching your topic

Step 1. Choose a topic

Research assignments usually offer a wide variety of possible topics. Almost any topic related to the assignment or unit theme will provide an effective starting point, so if your teacher doesn't suggest a topic you want to pursue, ask if the topic you have in mind will meet the requirements of the assignment.

When in doubt, choose a topic that you are interested in.

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Step 2. Locate available sources for your preliminary research

To get a good overall perspective on your topic, it's often best to begin your research with sources such as encyclopedias, almanacs and textbooks. You'll need to go well beyond these sources, but they're a good place to start as they provide good background information as well as leads to other sources.

Usually, the closer you can get to your actual topic, the better off you will be and the more original your research and ideas will be. Because of this, primary sources, (works written by someone who actually experienced the events described) are by far the best sources to use.

Because it's not always possible to locate primary sources, don't pass up good secondary sources, written by someone who used primary sources in their research.

Try to identify what type of source you're dealing with at any point in your research. Knowing whether you're using a primary, secondary, or other source will help you evaluate the information you find there.

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Step 3. Prepare a working bibliography

As you begin locating sources, you'll want to make a working list of the references you'll be using in your research. One way to do this is to write out the full reference listing for any source you plan to use on a sheet of notebook paper. Make sure you write the full listing using the proper reference format so you can locate the source later, and so you'll have the information when you prepare your formal list of references when your paper is complete.

You may wish to use one of the following shortcuts at this stage, or your teacher may request that you follow one of these formats at this point:

Shortcut #1: Write each full reference listing at the top of its own sheet of notebook paper. This will allow you to record all notes from that source on the same sheet of paper.

Shortcut #2: Write each full reference listing on a separate 3 x 5 inch card. This will help you organize your sources later and is a preferred method when you use a large number of sources.

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Step 4. Begin taking notes from your sources

You'll be asked to provide documentation to show where you found information on your research topic, so careful and accurate notes are a must.

Be sure to clearly note the page number where you find each piece of information so you can create the proper documentation in your finished paper.

Because facts provide the basis for much of your research, specific names, dates, locations, statistics, and other facts need to be carefully recorded so you don't make a mistake later on when you use them in your writing. Accuracy counts!

Whatever type of source you use, you're likely to come across the author's interpretations of the facts you find. These interpretations can help you understand your topic, but if you use them in your paper you'll need to document their origins carefully. Use the same careful note-taking approach for these so you can clearly attribute them later.

Documentation in the form of parenthetical, or in-text, citations will need to accompany any direct quote, significant idea, statistic, or fact that is not common knowledge.

Common Knowledge:
George Washington was the first President of the United States.
"Uncommon" Knowledge, requiring documentation:
At the age of twenty-one, Major George Washington explored the interior of what are now Pennsylvania and New York states, and very nearly lost his life after falling in an ice-filled river. (Morgan 323)

Since deciding what is "common knowledge" can sometimes be a tough call to make, a good rule of thumb to follow is:

When in doubt, document it!

A few words about Quotations:

A quotation is any group of words you've used verbatim. When used carefully, quotations can strengthen your paper and add liveliness to your writing. Place quotation marks around the words in your paper and include citations to show their source.

It is acceptable to shorten a quotation with an ellipsis ( . . . ), or to make it clearer with a bracketed addition of words ([ ]), or to change the tense to fit your paper but only if you do not change the meaning of the quotation.

Choose quotations wisely. Don't use quotations because

A) you don't know what the author means, or

B) you don't want to rewrite the ideas into your own words.

Select quotations only when they are written so clearly and elegantly that you feel you cannot improve upon them.

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Part II: Writing your essay or paper

Step 5. Develop a working thesis

Whether you're writing an essay or a research paper, your work should revolve around a thesis statement. A thesis statement is an original statement of opinion which the entire piece is designed to support.

A good thesis statement requires thought (that's what makes it original) and, having collected research and learned more about your topic, you're now ready to undertake this step.

Don't automatically settle for the first thesis statement you come up with. Because the entire essay or paper revolves around the thesis statement, the more carefully you construct your thesis statement, the stronger your entire work will be. Think about how your thesis statement will allow you to use the information you've come up with so far, and think about how it will allow you to show your own thoughts and interpretations on your subject.

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Step 6. Prepare an outline based on the information you've found and the thesis statement you've created

When first starting your essay or paper it's a good idea to begin with an outline of some sort to organize your thoughts. Go through your notes to group ideas together from different sources around central ideas or points.

Your teacher may required a formal outline for your writing, or a more simplified version, or none at all. However, don't skip this step. An outline for an essay or research paper works something like a roadmap to your writing: It will help you get started in the right direction, it will make sure you don't miss something important along the way, and it will keep you from getting lost before you reach your destination.

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Step 7. Write the first draft

The final draft you turn in should use a standard essay structure, with an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. However, when writing your first draft, don't get too concerned about getting a perfect introduction before you go on. Write a basic statement of topic, with your thesis statement, then go on to the heart of your essay or paper. You'll come back later and revise your introduction.

A few words about Structure:

An essay or research paper is a piece of expository writing, which seeks to inform your reader of your thoughts and explain new information. As such, it depends on clarity and organization throughout to achieve its purpose. Use standard paragraph and sentence structure to ensure your message is clear.

Each paragraph within your work should hang together as an individual piece of thought and information, as well as fit logically with those around it.

Use topic sentences , supporting details, illustrative examples, and clinching statements to construct clear paragraphs.

Use transitional phrases to link paragraphs to the text around them.

A few words about Language and Tone:

An essay or research paper is a formal piece of writing, and as such, you should use a formal style in your writing, instead of a conversational one. This can be achieved in many ways, but some good rules of thumb are:

Avoid using first person pronouns (I, me, my, etc.) in your writing.

Approach your audience as a general or unknown reader, which means also avoiding second person pronouns (your, your, etc.)

Provide information, ideas, and your own interpretations, instead of questions you can't answer

Follow formal rules for abbreviations and contractions within your writing: don't use them.

A few words about Tense:

When writing about historical events and concepts, use past tense verbs; After all, the thing you're describing already happened.

EX: Julius Caesar was murdered on March 15, 44 BC.

If, however, you talk about what a particular author has written, use present tense verbs to describe the author's actions.

EX: Historian Arthur Toynbee writes that Julius Caesar's murder upset the status quo in Roman government.

Similarly, when describing the actions of characters in works of literature or fiction, use present tense verbs.

EX: In Shakespeare's play, Brutus learns from the ghost of Julius Caesar that they will meet again at Philippi.

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Step 8. Re-write the first draft,adding and/or polishing your introduction and conclusion

Now that you've completed your first draft it's time to go back over it and begin revising your writing. One of the best tools you have at your disposal in this step is time. Let your first draft sit for awhile before re-reading it. When you come back to it you will have a fresh perspective on your writing and will be more likely to notice changes that will improve the whole piece.

Keep in mind that your introduction is the first thing your reader will encounter in your essay or paper. As such, it should be clearly written and should flow easily from idea to idea. A good approach for an introduction is to begin with a broad, open-ended idea, then gradually narrow it until you reach the core of your paper's topic.

Similarly, your conclusion is the last thing your reader will see. Work your way back out of your topic, leaving your reader with a sense of completion and fulfillment. Try to end with a sentence that clinches the paper with resonance and importance.

Doublecheck to make sure your introduction includes a clear explanation of your thesis statement. Make sure your conclusion comfortably wraps up all the major ideas you've introduced in the piece.

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Part III: Polishing your final draft

Step 9.Write the final draft, adding formal citations, title page (if necessary), page numbers, and list of references

As you begin your final draft, it's now time to worry about many of the nuts and bolts of presentation that you've let sit on the back burner until now. Many of the things you'll turn your attention to now have little to do with the topic you've chosen for your essay or research, but they matter a great deal in terms of polishing your work.

Some teachers will request specific changes to the guidelines presented here. However, unless otherwise directed, follow the formats and advice below as you prepare your final draft.

Page Format:

Whenever possible a final draft of your paper should be typewritten or word-processed on one side of clean, white paper. The text of your paper should be double-spaced, except for blocked quotations, footnotes (if necessary), and your reference list.

If your paper is not typed or word-processed, it should be written as neatly and legibly as possible, double-spaced, in blue or black ink, on one side only of clean, white notebook paper. Leave good margins on all four sides of the paper.

Title:

Your paper's title should clearly state what the paper is about. If you want to use a creative title, include it as the first half of your title, followed by a colon and the unambiguous subtitle.

EX: The Hero Takes a Fall: The Assassination of Julius Caesar

Title Pages:

Include a separate title page only if your paper is five or more pages in length. Otherwise, include your title, centered and double-spaced above your introductory paragraph. Include your heading in the upper right-hand corner of the first page.

Documentation:

Whenever you quote directly from a text or use other information that requires documentation, make sure your reader will be able to locate the material by providing the author and page number for the material.

One way to do this is to clearly refer to the author in your writing as an introduction to the quote or information, and provide the page number afterwards in the proper format.

EX: Arthur Toynbee states that Julius Caesar was "a victim of his own strength" (375).

If you don't identify the author in the lead-in to the quote or information, identify him or her in your citation.

EX: Julius Caesar's death was a result of the threat he posed to other leaders in Rome. He was in fact "a victim of his own strength" (Toynbee 375).

Citation format:

Include citations for any direct quote, significant idea, or unusual claim to show where you got the information.

Place the citation where a natural pause in your writing occurs, and as close as possible to the material it documents.

Use parenthetical, or in-text, citations for documenting the source of quotes or ideas. Give the author's last name and page number of the material within parentheses.

EX: (Toynbee 375)

For unsigned articles, use an abbreviated title and page number.

EX: ("Pharaohs" 689)

If your research involved more than one work by the same author, use the author's last name followed by an abbreviated title for the work you're referring to and page number.

EX: (Dickens Copperfield 224)

Include the citation before your closing punctuation.

EX: "... strength" (Toynbee 375).

NOT "... strength." (Toynbee 375)

References:

Provide a list of references which includes any sources you used in your research. This includes works you've quoted as well as those you've simply used for taking notes or for background information.

Follow standard reference formats for your list of references.

Length:

If length guidelines are given for a certain piece of writing, the length is provided purely to give you an idea of what the teacher thinks a student needs to adequately deal with the question in an acceptable manner. It is possible to write much less and earn an A, and it is possible to write much more and fail to earn a passing grade. Rather than focus on the length in terms of space, try to look at length in terms of purpose:

What do you have to accomplish in the essay or paper?

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Step 10. Proofread and correct errors

Keep in mind that what  you have to say in any given paper is the most important component, but that how you say it is also an important element. Follow standard rules of grammar, usage, mechanics, spelling, sentence structure, and paragraph structure. Your grade will be affected by how well you follow these rules.

An excellent resource for matters of mechanics and usage is Strunk and White's The Elements of Style. Ask your teacher or librarian where to get a copy.

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A few final words:

The ten steps presented above are not the only approach available to you as you pursue essays and research papers in your classes. Sometimes the order of the steps will have to be rearranged, and sometimes you will skip a step or two depending on the teacher and assignment at hand. However, when faced with a written assignment for your class, following the steps presented here will go a long way toward helping you to a strong finished product.

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