Writing a Research paper
Table of Contents
Some important definitions
Many students are confused by the differences between an essay
and what's often called a research paper or report. Some teachers,
students and parents use these terms interchangeably, but in this
guide the terms represent different ideas.
Essays:
Because essays rely mostly on your own interpretation of events,
facts and information, they rarely require research work beyond
what is covered in class and, sometimes, an accompanying reference
list. Due to time constraints, essays written during tests will
usually follow only a few of the guidelines presented here (clear
organization, language, tone, etc). Essay assignments written outside
of class will follow a few more of the guidelines, such as presentation,
page format, and others. However, you should follow guidelines presented
here regarding writing and polishing your work whenever you write
an essay. (See Part II: Writing your Essay or Paper beginning on
page 4)
Research papers:
Research papers usually are carried out over a longer period of
time than are essays and revolve around information you gather from
a variety of sources. Usually, neither in-class or out-of-class
essays will rely as heavily on research done outside of class. Consequently,
the research guidelines covered in this manual apply, for the most
part, only to what we call a research paper. Sometimes specific
guidelines and formats will be provided for your research work;
sometimes the assignment will be more open-ended. Either way, you'll
want to follow all the guidelines below, from location of sources
to use of language, from presentation concerns to citation and reference
formats.
Before you begin any writing assignment, make sure you spend some
time to be sure you understand what your task is in the particular
assignment. If you have any questions or doubts about what's expected,
ask. After you've written your paper, check again to make sure that
you've accomplished that task.
^To Table of Contents^
Part I: Researching your topic
Step 1. Choose a topic
Research assignments usually offer a wide variety of possible
topics. Almost any topic related to the assignment or unit theme
will provide an effective starting point, so if your teacher doesn't
suggest a topic you want to pursue, ask if the topic you have in
mind will meet the requirements of the assignment.
When in doubt, choose a topic that you are interested in.
^To Table of Contents^
Step 2. Locate available sources for your preliminary
research
To get a good overall perspective on your topic, it's
often best to begin your research with sources such as encyclopedias,
almanacs and textbooks. You'll need to go well beyond these sources,
but they're a good place to start as they provide good background
information as well as leads to other sources.
Usually, the closer you can get to your actual topic, the better
off you will be and the more original your research and ideas
will be. Because of this, primary sources, (works written by someone
who actually experienced the events described) are by far the
best sources to use.
Because it's not always possible to locate primary sources, don't
pass up good secondary sources, written by someone who used primary
sources in their research.
Try to identify what type of source you're dealing with at any
point in your research. Knowing whether you're using a primary,
secondary, or other source will help you evaluate the information
you find there.
^To Table of Contents^
Step 3. Prepare a working bibliography
As you begin locating sources, you'll want to make a working
list of the references you'll be using in your research. One way
to do this is to write out the full reference listing for any source
you plan to use on a sheet of notebook paper. Make sure you write
the full listing using the proper reference format so you can locate
the source later, and so you'll have the information when you prepare
your formal list of references when your paper is complete.
You may wish to use one of the following shortcuts at this stage,
or your teacher may request that you follow one of these formats
at this point:
Shortcut #1: Write each full reference listing at the
top of its own sheet of notebook paper. This will allow you to
record all notes from that source on the same sheet of paper.
Shortcut #2: Write each full reference listing on a separate
3 x 5 inch card. This will help you organize your sources later
and is a preferred method when you use a large number of sources.
^To Table of Contents^
Step 4. Begin taking notes from your sources
You'll be asked to provide documentation to show where
you found information on your research topic, so careful and accurate
notes are a must.
Be sure to clearly note the page number where you find each piece
of information so you can create the proper documentation in your
finished paper.
Because facts provide the basis for much of your research, specific
names, dates, locations, statistics, and other facts need to be
carefully recorded so you don't make a mistake later on when you
use them in your writing. Accuracy counts!
Whatever type of source you use, you're likely to come across
the author's interpretations of the facts you find. These interpretations
can help you understand your topic, but if you use them in your
paper you'll need to document their origins carefully. Use the
same careful note-taking approach for these so you can clearly
attribute them later.
Documentation in the form of parenthetical, or in-text, citations
will need to accompany any direct quote, significant idea, statistic,
or fact that is not common knowledge.
- Common Knowledge:
- George Washington was the first President of the United States.
- "Uncommon" Knowledge, requiring documentation:
- At the age of twenty-one, Major George Washington explored
the interior of what are now Pennsylvania and New York states,
and very nearly lost his life after falling in an ice-filled
river. (Morgan 323)
Since deciding what is "common knowledge" can sometimes be a
tough call to make, a good rule of thumb to follow is:
When in doubt, document it!
A few words about Quotations:
A quotation is any group of words you've used verbatim. When
used carefully, quotations can strengthen your paper and add liveliness
to your writing. Place quotation marks around the words in your
paper and include citations to show their source.
It is acceptable to shorten a quotation with an ellipsis ( .
. . ), or to make it clearer with a bracketed addition of words
([ ]), or to change the tense to fit your paper but only
if you do not change the meaning of the quotation.
Choose quotations wisely. Don't use quotations because
A) you don't know what the author means, or
B) you don't want to rewrite the ideas into your own words.
Select quotations only when they are written so clearly and elegantly
that you feel you cannot improve upon them.
^To Table of Contents^
Part II: Writing your essay or paper
Step 5. Develop a working thesis
Whether you're writing an essay or a research paper, your
work should revolve around a thesis statement. A thesis statement
is an original statement of opinion which the entire piece is designed
to support.
A good thesis statement requires thought (that's what makes it
original) and, having collected research and learned more about
your topic, you're now ready to undertake this step.
Don't automatically settle for the first thesis statement you
come up with. Because the entire essay or paper revolves around
the thesis statement, the more carefully you construct your thesis
statement, the stronger your entire work will be. Think about
how your thesis statement will allow you to use the information
you've come up with so far, and think about how it will allow
you to show your own thoughts and interpretations on your subject.
^To Table of Contents^
Step 6. Prepare an outline based on the information
you've found and the thesis statement you've created
When first starting your essay or paper it's a good idea
to begin with an outline of some sort to organize your thoughts.
Go through your notes to group ideas together from different sources
around central ideas or points.
Your teacher may required a formal outline for your writing,
or a more simplified version, or none at all. However, don't skip
this step. An outline for an essay or research paper works something
like a roadmap to your writing: It will help you get started in
the right direction, it will make sure you don't miss something
important along the way, and it will keep you from getting lost
before you reach your destination.
^To Table of Contents^
Step 7. Write the first draft
The final draft you turn in should use a standard essay
structure, with an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. However,
when writing your first draft, don't get too concerned about getting
a perfect introduction before you go on. Write a basic statement
of topic, with your thesis statement, then go on to the heart of
your essay or paper. You'll come back later and revise your introduction.
A few words about Structure:
An essay or research paper is a piece of expository writing,
which seeks to inform your reader of your thoughts and explain
new information. As such, it depends on clarity and organization
throughout to achieve its purpose. Use standard paragraph and
sentence structure to ensure your message is clear.
Each paragraph within your work should hang together as an individual
piece of thought and information, as well as fit logically with
those around it.
Use topic sentences , supporting details, illustrative examples,
and clinching statements to construct clear paragraphs.
Use transitional phrases to link paragraphs to the text around
them.
A few words about Language and Tone:
An essay or research paper is a formal piece of writing, and
as such, you should use a formal style in your writing, instead
of a conversational one. This can be achieved in many ways, but
some good rules of thumb are:
Avoid using first person pronouns (I, me, my, etc.) in your writing.
Approach your audience as a general or unknown reader, which
means also avoiding second person pronouns (your, your, etc.)
Provide information, ideas, and your own interpretations, instead
of questions you can't answer
Follow formal rules for abbreviations and contractions within
your writing: don't use them.
A few words about Tense:
When writing about historical events and concepts, use past tense
verbs; After all, the thing you're describing already happened.
EX: Julius Caesar was murdered on March 15, 44 BC.
If, however, you talk about what a particular author has written,
use present tense verbs to describe the author's actions.
EX: Historian Arthur Toynbee writes that Julius Caesar's
murder upset the status quo in Roman government.
Similarly, when describing the actions of characters in works
of literature or fiction, use present tense verbs.
EX: In Shakespeare's play, Brutus learns from the ghost
of Julius Caesar that they will meet again at Philippi.
^To Table of Contents^
Step 8. Re-write the first draft,adding and/or
polishing your introduction and conclusion
Now that you've completed your first draft it's time to
go back over it and begin revising your writing. One of the best
tools you have at your disposal in this step is time. Let your first
draft sit for awhile before re-reading it. When you come back to
it you will have a fresh perspective on your writing and will be
more likely to notice changes that will improve the whole piece.
Keep in mind that your introduction is the first thing your reader
will encounter in your essay or paper. As such, it should be clearly
written and should flow easily from idea to idea. A good approach
for an introduction is to begin with a broad, open-ended idea,
then gradually narrow it until you reach the core of your paper's
topic.
Similarly, your conclusion is the last thing your reader will
see. Work your way back out of your topic, leaving your reader
with a sense of completion and fulfillment. Try to end with a
sentence that clinches the paper with resonance and importance.
Doublecheck to make sure your introduction includes a clear explanation
of your thesis statement. Make sure your conclusion comfortably
wraps up all the major ideas you've introduced in the piece.
^To Table of Contents^
Part III: Polishing your final draft
Step 9.Write the final draft, adding formal citations,
title page (if necessary), page numbers, and list of references
As you begin your final draft, it's now time to worry
about many of the nuts and bolts of presentation that you've let
sit on the back burner until now. Many of the things you'll turn
your attention to now have little to do with the topic you've chosen
for your essay or research, but they matter a great deal in terms
of polishing your work.
Some teachers will request specific changes to the guidelines
presented here. However, unless otherwise directed, follow the
formats and advice below as you prepare your final draft.
Page Format:
Whenever possible a final draft of your paper should be typewritten
or word-processed on one side of clean, white paper. The text
of your paper should be double-spaced, except for blocked quotations,
footnotes (if necessary), and your reference list.
If your paper is not typed or word-processed, it should be written
as neatly and legibly as possible, double-spaced, in blue or black
ink, on one side only of clean, white notebook paper. Leave good
margins on all four sides of the paper.
Title:
Your paper's title should clearly state what the paper is about.
If you want to use a creative title, include it as the first half
of your title, followed by a colon and the unambiguous subtitle.
EX: The Hero Takes a Fall: The Assassination of Julius
Caesar
Title Pages:
Include a separate title page only if your paper is five or more
pages in length. Otherwise, include your title, centered and double-spaced
above your introductory paragraph. Include your heading in the
upper right-hand corner of the first page.
Documentation:
Whenever you quote directly from a text or use other information
that requires documentation, make sure your reader will be able
to locate the material by providing the author and page number
for the material.
One way to do this is to clearly refer to the author in your
writing as an introduction to the quote or information, and provide
the page number afterwards in the proper format.
EX: Arthur Toynbee states that Julius Caesar was "a
victim of his own strength" (375).
If you don't identify the author in the lead-in to the quote
or information, identify him or her in your citation.
EX: Julius Caesar's death was a result of the threat
he posed to other leaders in Rome. He was in fact "a victim of
his own strength" (Toynbee 375).
Citation format:
Include citations for any direct quote, significant idea, or
unusual claim to show where you got the information.
Place the citation where a natural pause in your writing occurs,
and as close as possible to the material it documents.
Use parenthetical, or in-text, citations for documenting the
source of quotes or ideas. Give the author's last name and page
number of the material within parentheses.
EX: (Toynbee 375)
For unsigned articles, use an abbreviated title and page number.
EX: ("Pharaohs" 689)
If your research involved more than one work by the same author,
use the author's last name followed by an abbreviated title for
the work you're referring to and page number.
EX: (Dickens Copperfield 224)
Include the citation before your closing punctuation.
EX: "... strength" (Toynbee 375).
NOT "... strength." (Toynbee 375)
References:
Provide a list of references which includes any sources you used
in your research. This includes works you've quoted as well as
those you've simply used for taking notes or for background information.
Follow standard reference formats for your list of references.
Length:
If length guidelines are given for a certain piece of writing,
the length is provided purely to give you an idea of what the
teacher thinks a student needs to adequately deal with the question
in an acceptable manner. It is possible to write much less and
earn an A, and it is possible to write much more and fail to earn
a passing grade. Rather than focus on the length in terms of space,
try to look at length in terms of purpose:
What do you have to accomplish in the essay or paper?
^To Table of Contents^
Step 10. Proofread and correct errors
Keep in mind that what you have to say in any given
paper is the most important component, but that how you say it is
also an important element. Follow standard rules of grammar, usage,
mechanics, spelling, sentence structure, and paragraph structure.
Your grade will be affected by how well you follow these rules.
An excellent resource for matters of mechanics and usage is Strunk
and White's The Elements of Style. Ask your teacher or
librarian where to get a copy.
^To Table of Contents^
A few final words:
The ten steps presented above are not the only approach
available to you as you pursue essays and research papers in your
classes. Sometimes the order of the steps will have to be rearranged,
and sometimes you will skip a step or two depending on the teacher
and assignment at hand. However, when faced with a written assignment
for your class, following the steps presented here will go a long
way toward helping you to a strong finished product.
^To Table of Contents^
|
